Appendix
I
PHS Health Risk
Communication Practices and EPA's Seven Cardinal Rules of
Risk Communication
Rule
1: Accept and involve the public as a legitimate partner.
Rule 2: Plan carefully and evaluate
your efforts.
Rule 3: Listen to the public's
specific concerns.
Rule 4: Be honest, frank, and open.
Rule 5: Coordinate and collaborate
with other credible sources.
Rule 6: Meet the needs of the media.
Rule 7: Speak clearly and with
compassion.
| Critical Elements |
Case Studies |
| |
1 |
2 |
3 |
4 |
5 |
6 |
7 |
8 |
9 |
10 |
| Demonstrate
respect for the public by involving the community
early in the decision-making process |
UK |
UK |
Y |
Y |
Y |
Y |
Y |
Y |
N |
Y |
| |
| |
| Identify all
parties that have an interest or stake in the
issue or problem |
UK |
UK |
Y |
Y |
Y |
Y |
Y |
N |
N |
N |
Y - Yes N - No UK - Unknown (Insufficient Information)
Source: Covello and Allen
| Critical Elements |
Case Studies |
| |
1 |
2 |
3 |
4 |
5 |
6 |
7 |
8 |
9 |
10 |
| Establish
clear and explicit risk communication objectives |
Y |
UK |
Y |
Y |
Y |
Y |
Y |
N |
N |
Y |
| |
| |
| Classify and
segment various groups among audiences |
Y |
Y |
Y |
UK |
Y |
Y |
Y |
N |
N |
N |
| |
| |
| Aim
communications at specific subgroups in audience |
Y |
Y |
Y |
UK |
Y |
Y |
Y |
N |
N |
Y |
| |
| |
| Provide
sufficient information to discuss risks |
Y |
Y |
UK |
N |
Y |
Y |
Y |
N |
UK |
Y |
| |
| |
| Recruit
competent persons |
UK |
UK |
UK |
Y |
UK |
Y |
UK |
Y |
Y |
UK |
| |
| |
| Train staff in
communication skills |
UK |
UK |
UK |
UK |
Y |
N |
UK |
UK |
N |
UK |
| |
| |
| Pretest
messages |
UK |
UK |
UK |
N |
N |
Y |
Y |
N |
N |
Y |
| |
| |
| Evaluate
efforts |
Y |
N |
Y |
Y |
Y |
Y |
Y |
N |
Y |
Y |
Y - Yes N - No UK - Unknown (Insufficient Information)
Source: Covello and Allen
| Critical Elements |
Case Studies |
| |
1 |
2 |
3 |
4 |
5 |
6 |
7 |
8 |
9 |
10 |
| Make no
assumptions about what people know, think, or
want done about risks |
UK |
UK |
UK |
N |
N |
N |
Y |
N |
N |
N |
| |
| |
| Find out what
people are thinking, using interviews and surveys |
UK |
UK |
Y |
Y |
Y |
Y |
Y |
N |
Y |
Y |
| |
| |
| Recognize
people's emotions. |
UK |
UK |
Y |
Y |
Y |
N |
Y |
N |
Y |
UK |
| |
| |
| Recognize
hidden agendas, symbolic meanings, and broader
economic and political considerations |
UK |
UK |
Y |
Y |
N |
N |
UK |
N |
Y |
N |
Y - Yes N - No UK - Unknown (Insufficient Information)
Source: Covello and Allen
| Critical Elements |
Case Studies |
| |
1 |
2 |
3 |
4 |
5 |
6 |
7 |
8 |
9 |
10 |
| Balance
building trust and credibility with providing
mortality statistics and quantitative risk
assessment |
UK |
UK |
Y |
Y |
Y |
Y |
Y |
N |
Y |
UK |
| |
| |
| State
credentials |
UK |
UK |
UK |
Y |
N |
Y |
UK |
Y |
Y |
UK |
| |
| |
| Admit mistakes
and when you don't know or are uncertain |
UK |
UK |
UK |
Y |
UK |
Y |
Y |
Y |
Y |
UK |
| |
| |
| Get back to
people with answers |
UK |
Uk |
Y |
UK |
N |
Y |
Y |
Y |
Y |
Y |
| |
| |
| Don't minimize
or exaggerate level or risk |
UK |
UK |
Y |
Y |
Y |
Y |
Y |
Y |
Y |
Y |
| |
| |
| Speculate only
with caution |
UK |
UK |
UK |
Y |
N |
UK |
Y |
Y |
Y |
Y |
| |
| |
| Discuss data
uncertainties, strengths, and weaknesses |
UK |
UK |
Y |
Y |
UK |
Y |
Y |
Y |
Y |
Y |
| |
| |
| Cite ranges of
risk estimates |
UK |
UK |
Y |
Y |
N |
Y |
UK |
Y |
Y |
UK |
| |
| |
| If in doubt,
lean toward sharing more, not less information |
UK |
UK |
Y |
Y |
Y |
Y |
Y |
N |
UK |
Y |
Y - Yes N - No UK - Unknown (Insufficient Information)
Source: Covello and Allen
| Critical Elements |
Case Studies |
| |
1 |
2 |
3 |
4 |
5 |
6 |
7 |
8 |
9 |
10 |
| Coordinate
inter-organizational and intra-organizational
communication |
Y |
UK |
Y |
Y |
Y |
Y |
Y |
Y |
Y |
N |
| |
| |
| Devote effort
and resources to building bridges with other
organizations |
Y |
Y |
Y |
Y |
Y |
Y |
Y |
Y |
Y |
N |
| |
| |
| Use credible
intermediaries |
Y |
Y |
Y |
Y |
Y |
Y |
Y |
Y |
Y |
Y |
| |
| |
| Consult with
others about who is best to answer questions
about risk |
UK |
UK |
Y |
UK |
UK |
Y |
UK |
N |
UK |
UK |
| |
| |
| Issue
communication jointly with other trustworthy
sources |
UK |
UK |
UK |
Y |
Y |
UK |
Y |
UK |
UK |
UK |
Y - Yes N - No UK - Unknown (Insufficient Information)
Source: Covello and Allen
| Critical Elements |
Case Studies |
| |
1 |
2 |
3 |
4 |
5 |
6 |
7 |
8 |
9 |
10 |
| Be open and
accessible to the media |
Y |
UK |
Y |
Y |
UK |
UK |
Y |
N |
Y |
Y |
| |
| |
| Provide risk
information tailored to the needs of each medium |
UK |
UK |
Y |
Y |
UK |
UK |
Y |
N |
Y |
UK |
| |
| |
| Provide
background material on complex risk issues |
Y |
Y |
Y |
Y |
UK |
UK |
UK |
Y |
Y |
UK |
| |
| |
| Follow up on
stories with praise and criticism |
-- |
-- |
-- |
-- |
-- |
-- |
-- |
-- |
-- |
-- |
| |
| |
| Establish
long-term relationships of trust with specific
editors and reporters |
UK |
UK |
UK |
Y |
UK |
UK |
Y |
UK |
UK |
Y |
Y - Yes N - No UK - Unknown (Insufficient Information)
Source: Covello and Allen
| Critical Elements |
Case Studies |
| |
1 |
2 |
3 |
4 |
5 |
6 |
7 |
8 |
9 |
10 |
| Use simple,
nontechnical language |
UK |
UK |
UK |
Y |
UK |
Y |
Y |
UK |
Y |
Y |
| |
| |
| Be sensitive
to local norms |
UK |
UK |
Y |
Y |
Y |
Y |
N |
UK |
UK |
Y |
| |
| |
| Use vivid,
concrete images that communicate at a personal
level |
UK |
UK |
UK |
Y |
Y |
Y |
Y |
UK |
UK |
Y |
| |
| |
| Use examples
and anecdotes that make technical risk data come
alive |
UK |
UK |
UK |
UK |
Y |
Y |
Y |
UK |
Y |
Y |
| |
| |
| Avoid instant,
abstract, unfeeling language about deaths,
injuries, and illnesses |
UK |
UK |
UK |
UK |
Y |
Y |
Y |
UK |
Y |
Y |
| |
| |
| Acknowledge
and respond to emotions |
UK |
UK |
Y |
Y |
Y |
Y |
Y |
UK |
Y |
Y |
| |
| |
| Use risk
comparisons to help put risks into perspective,
but avoid comparisons that ignore distinctions
that people consider important |
UK |
UK |
Y |
UK |
UK |
Y |
UK |
UK |
UK |
UK |
| |
| |
| Discuss
actions under way or to be taken |
UK |
UK |
Y |
Y |
Y |
N |
Y |
UK |
Y |
Y |
| |
| |
| Tell people
what you can't do |
UK |
UK |
Y |
UK |
UK |
UK |
Y |
Y |
Y |
Y |
Y - Yes N - No UK - Unknown (Insufficient Information)
Source: Covello and Allen
|